THE EVOLUTION OF CARTOGRAPHY
Maps are one of the most ancient forms of nonverbal communication. Historical data shows that it is likely humans were drawing them before they were writing texts. It is distinctly possible that their basic drawing may even have preceded formal languages. They have been used for thousands of years but the major step forward in came in the 15th Century. The invention of printing in 1492 ensured they had uniformity and could be widely produced and distributed, making them available to the general public. At the same time there was an enormous increase in literacy that enabled people to read them and a market for their sale surfaced.
During the 16th Century sea voyages to Europe led to an explosion in their production, resulting in a profitable business rather than just their production educational items. During that century an increasing number depicting The Americas were being published as knowledge increased due to exploration. A volume by William P Cummings has 450 examples that span the discovery of America until the American Revolution, depicting the southern states. Subsequently, governments then began to use them as tools for the purposes of foreign conquest and defense but these were not available in the public domain.
Their study became a fashionable hobby for statesmen and artists during The Renaissance and luminaries such as Leonardo Di Vinci learned from them. "16th Century Town Plans" from Braun & Hogenberg replicates a fine selection. City leaders were interested in pictorial examples depicting their own cities and this is keenly demonstrated in Rome at the Vatican where there is a gallery that was constructed in 1580 containing wonderful examples of Renaissance cartography. Closeted in this Vatican gallery are 40 studies of Italian regions and cities arranged in geographical order defining the central corridor of Italy. More are also visible on the ceiling of the gallery with geographically arranged scenes of miracles and saints demonstrating the rather medieval conclusion that Italy was the New Holy Land.
Europe's colonies inspired similar projects. Colonial Ireland was the first part of the British Isles to be drawn. In the 19th century “The Ordnance Survey” of 19th Century Ireland was followed by the production of Ordnance Surveys in England. During this period most of Europe and the United States were surveyed in national projects. The emergence of thematic studies defined mineral deposits and other landmarks that were subsequently adapted to display social and economic themes. They became an effective way to present the data gathered by the census takers. In 1855, Robinson's depicted London while dramatically defining sites of deaths from cholera. Their use expanded to illustrate the geographical distributions of phenomena such as plant species, employment, religions, languages, zoning regulations and earthquakes. With the new surveying techniques of the 18th Century it was possible to produce accurate relief cartography defining the earth's surface in three dimensions.
By the 19th Century the increase of literacy due to the expansion of public education led to a greater use, making them commonly used items enjoyed by many. Printed samples from abroad were sold in America but eventually the United States had its own map printing industry. Originally it was in private hands, but with the establishment of the US Geological survey in 1879 the business spread nationwide.
Computers have revolutionized their production with software allowing changes to scale, text and projection and the ability to print the result showing all or part of an area and prepared on a flat surface whereas globes show the earth as a whole. The reproduction can show a geographic area that is a part of or the entire earth's surface, demonstrating many aspects that the author wants us to see at one time like cities, roads, lakes and mountains. Most graphically illustrate space, allowing us to see the relationship between a feature - such as a river - to others, such as cities and mountains. They can show social and economic developments by defining how the transportation system has developed and agricultural areas. They also identify where two or more countries come into contact, where there are seas and forests and they can be produced on any surface, although they are usually inscribed or printed on paper. In the past they were drawn on leather, in sand or in any other medium that came to hand.
Some are used to communicate particular graphic information about particular places in respect to others. We use them to get from place to place and also as advertising tools, directing consumers to products or services. Jotting down some directions to show a person how to reach a given point by drawing buildings and roads to make the directions easy is simple example of cartography. They are useful to pinpoint where you are going and where you are now. It defines the route you took to get where you are from your previous location. It is usually drawn a piece of paper and is a representation of place or space, or of phenomena as they exist in space. It portrays geographical features or spatial features. Modern examples give you guidance about how the drawer has represented the scene. Directional information, scales and keys are incorporated. Usually it is smaller than its subject, sometimes by an enormous amount. The world’s largest country, Russia, can be drawn on a postage stamp. Historically, they provide an insight into past cultures via its artworks, style and presentation. Its substance provides a record of past landscapes and features that may have been eliminated by development or farming, offering a visual dimension. One glance and the reader can tell exactly what is going on over the whole area shown during a single moment in time. It shows a single place at a single moment. They can be a simple portrait of a place and record of the contemporary landscape of that period. Others may be intentionally designed as a commercial consensus of the resources and people of a place. They offer a glimpse into the artistry and imagination of the drawer, sometimes providing all of these insights. When reconstructing the past, they can provide records of landscape and population movements.
Traditionally, north is shown to be at the top of the page. An arrow or compass may be used to indicate the cardinal orientation. On many 16th and 17th century examples the compass logo is richly illustrated and is often a compelling piece of artwork in itself. Some also include a latitude and longitude grid running around the border and overlaid on the content. Titles and dates are notated and those made after the 18th century mostly include a scale. Most scales are fairly easy to understand, the simplest ones consisting of a linear bar with distance equivalents written beneath. During the Medieval period, European examples were dominated in medieval times by religious views. In one particular format, Jerusalem was depicted at the center and east was oriented toward the top.
The Vikings were known to have visual records of their explorations of the northern regions of the world. Meanwhile, the science developed realistically along more practical lines in Arabic lands, including the Mediterranean region. They were, of course, drawn and illuminated by hand, which made their distribution extremely limited. During this century a Muslim scholar in Sicily completed a view of the world with the south at the top that was later inverted to be viewed more easily. With the invention of printing in the 15th Century maps become more widely available. They were printed using carved wooden blocks. In the 16th Century, engraved copper plates appeared and continued to be used until the invention of modern printing methods. Giant strides were taken in during the period of exploration in the 15th and 16th Centuries. Navigation charts depicting rivers, coastlines, harbors, other seafaring features, compass lines and other navigation aids were included. These were often classified information, held secretively against the enemy. They were treated as national or commercial secrets.
After the voyage of Columbus and others to The New World, charts showing the world as a whole started to appear in the early 16th Century. A Belgian named Mercator developed a cylindrical projection that is still used today for navigation. Other projections soon followed and in 1507 the view the New World discoveries, based on the Ptolemaic projection was produced by Waldseemuller. It did not show the entire globe, but shows the old world in Ptolemaic projection. It does include details from Americi Vespucci, after whom America was named. The view to include the entire globe was produced in 1508 by Roselli. It showed ocean areas that were too small and a mythical southern continent; however it is a true view of the world. A subsequent heart shaped novel view of Apian from 1530 proved popular during the Renaissance. Janssonius’ later work of 1629 with marginal illustrations was not particularly accurate but it exemplifies the quintessential Renaissance view that the world was in two hemispheres. Arriving in 1630 , it was a major step forward. Jumping forward to 1720, the ultimate tool for navigation of the world appeared, devised by Van Keulen, although all his straight lines were true bearings which subsequently resulted in a large distortion between the two poles.
During the following centuries, they became increasingly factual and accurate. Many nations encouraged national programs but amazingly, until World War II expanded the use of aerial photography, many parts of the world were not correctly shown. Today, modern cartography is based on a combination of ground measurements and remote sensing from the air. A major development occurred when geographic information systems (GIS) emerged during 1970s and 80s, representing a major shift in the paradigm. Previously, it was both the database and the display of geographic information using traditional (paper) methods. The analysis, database and display are physically and conceptually different aspects of handling geographic data in GIS. These geographic information systems combine elements of computer hardware, software, digital data, people, organizations, and institutions, collected, stored and analyzed. A revolution manifested itself with the advent of the Internet. These days, if setting out on any journey the general public consult their computer making directions available to everyone, no matter where they happen to be in the world. Access to personal computers, aided by the mass production of cheap satellite navigation systems applies this science directly to the lives of modern man and it is as much a part of everyday life as the mobile telephone.
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